Over the past decade, many countries have pursued major educational reforms, including two prominent Southeast Asian nations: Indonesia and Vietnam. Interestingly, both countries were driven to reform largely because of their performance in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Indonesia, which took part in PISA in 2001, 2004, 2007, and 2018, consistently recorded poor results